Satya Astrology

Author: Geoffrey Ballinger

  • Scorpio: The Scorpion

    Scorpio: The Scorpion

    “Bright Scorpio Arm’d, with poys’nous Tail prepares,
    Mens Martial Minds, for violence and Wars;
    His Venom heats, and boyls their Bloods to Rage,
    And Rapine spreads o’re the unlucky Age”

    Marcus Manilius, Astronomica tr. Thomas Creech
    • Element: Water
    • Modality: Fixed
    • Ruler: Mars
    • Date: October 23 – November 22
    • Symbol: Scorpion

    Star Lore

    Depicted as early as the 12th century BCE, Scorpio was one of the largest identified constellations of the ancient world, its claws sprawling over what is now the sign of Libra. The Greek poet Aratus called it “the great beast” due to its size. The Greeks identified it with the lowly scorpion sent by Gaia to slay Orion after the supposedly invincible hero boasted he would kill all wild animals on Earth. The stars still re-enact this ancient drama, with the constellation of Orion fleeing to the west as Scorpio rises in the east.

    The constellation’s brightest star, Antares, was one of the Royal Stars of Persia, marking the decline of the Sun’s power at the autumn equinox in ancient times. The star’s reddish hue gave it its name, meaning “rival of Mars.”

    Not unlike the zodiac sign itself, the symbol of the scorpion has a complex and layered history. In Christianity, the insect is a symbol of death and self-interest associated with Judas Iscariot, whereas in Muslim cultures it is seen as a symbol of human sexuality. In pre-Islamic Mesopotamia, however, the scorpion was the symbol of various goddesses, especially those associated with love and fertility. The Mesopotamian primordial sea goddess Tiamat created half-scorpion, half-human monsters to avenge the murder of her mate by the new gods. These monsters later guarded the gates the Sun god used to enter the realm of darkness at night. Scorpions were also the symbol of Ishara, a goddess of love in parts of ancient Syria, and Serket, the ancient Egyptian goddess of fertility, nature, animals, medicine, and magic. 

    Scorpio – the Scorpion, detail from the Horoscope from ‘The book of birth of Iskandar”

    Many of the mythological characteristics of scorpions stem from the behavior of the animal itself. Of the 1,300 species of scorpions found around the world, only about 25 possess potentially lethal venom. The insects are extremely resilient, preferring dark, hidden dens, and capable of going without food for months. Their connection to love and sexuality could come from the intricate pas de deux that many species of scorpions perform before mating. Scorpions are also some of the most exemplary insect mothers, carrying their offspring on their backs until they can fend for themselves. 

    In more recent times, Scorpio has been associated with another animal symbol. The tetramorph, a Christian symbol meant to represent the four evangelists, has its roots in the Babylonian depiction of the four fixed signs of the zodiac. In it, John the apostle is represented by an eagle that, in turn, stands in for the fixed water sign of Scorpio. The eagle is an apt depiction of the sign’s potential and martial nature: a formidable and patient hunter, the eagle is capable of soaring to great heights but, importantly, is largely a scavenger. Some astrologers also associate the sign with the phoenix due to its modern association with death, transformation, and rebirth.  

    Characteristics

    As a water sign, the archetype of Scorpio can be associated with deep, still waters, filled with long-accumulated sentiment. The fertile mud at the bottom of a river or the depths of the ocean fit with this image, as does the hulking iceberg—fixed, frozen water, with its bulk largely hidden under the surface. The fixed modality of the sign lends it a stubbornness; those with strong Scorpio placements can only be moved from a point of focus with great effort, their rooted strength allowing them to channel juggernaut tendencies in pursuit of a goal. 

    Ancient astrologers considered Scorpio to be both a bestial sign, as it is represented by an animal, and fertile, like the other water signs. They possess considerable creative power, whether artistic or reproductive. While the sign has gained a reputation for raw sexuality in contemporary astrology, ancient Mesopotamian astrologers called Antares, the principal star of Scorpio, the “lord of the seed” or the “lusty king”, due to its associations with reproduction. The mating behavior of the scorpion plays a role in reinforcing this, but so does their maternal instinct. Many Scorpios have the drive to reproduce, and are typically very caring—if occasionally controlling or temperamental—parents. 

    The month October and the sign of Scorpio, represented by the vintage and by the parable of the unjust husbandmen

    Scorpios tend to command a deep psychological resilience, usually coupled with a kind of physical toughness. The association with deep waters is a good metaphor for the strength and emotional depth of a Scorpio, with watery Mars energy translating into fortitude and willpower. On the flip side, Scorpio natives can have trouble accepting weakness in others, and even more trouble accepting it in themselves. This can lead to quite the tangle of feelings; with a powerful emotional memory, Scorpios often have a few sore spots that they keep close to their chests, making forgiving themselves—and others—a Herculean task. 

    Typical of a fixed sign, Scorpios place heavy value on loyalty and can be jealous or possessive, an extension of their all-or-nothing mindset. As the detriment of Venus, they have trouble having fun for fun’s sake and require a deeper reward to consider something worth it. Scorpios tend to have a nurturing instinct, with an innate understanding of emotional turmoil. Few other signs can provide the same sort of shelter in a storm. 

    Scorpios learn by experience, and ever the more timid specimens have done plenty of poking around the darker parts of humanity, or themselves. This Mars-ruled sign’s courage allows it to face the good, the bad, and the ugly head-on, even less clear-cut, emotional situations that the brave Aries would feel out of their depth in. However, the intensity of Scorpio, as well as its unwillingness to compromise, can sometimes escalate a situation beyond what is necessary.

    Not unlike Libras, Scorpios are unlikely to show all of their cards in the first interaction, often withholding until they have a better idea of who they are dealing with. In contrast to Libra, however, Scorpios reject facades and prefer to go beyond the superficial to the heart of the matter. They have no trouble ruffling feathers, and will not hesitate to cut another person down to size if they feel a display of power is in order. Scorpios are typically skilled at deception but value the truth—a Scorpio telling lies is a sign they do not want to engage with you. 

    Scorpio by Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis, 1907

    Perhaps the most basic drive of the Scorpion is to penetrate the surface and plumb the depths, to discover the root of things, either in themselves or others. This is part of the reason Scorpio is considered the fall of the Moon—even if emotions run deep in this fixed water sign, they are seldom visible, and can remain hidden in the native’s heart until a crisis forces them to well up to the surface. Ancient astrologers considered the Moon in Scorpio a time for deception when the true motivation of events is obscured. 

    Mars’ rulership of the sign, as well as the martial influence of Antares, gives Scorpio an aggressive side, with many natives prone to temperamental outbursts. However, this nocturnal martial nature is distinct from that of the diurnal Aries. Unlike the Ram, which rushes headlong into challenges and overwhelms with its opening blows, the Scorpion prefers a subtler approach, lying in wait until the opening presents itself before striking with deadly force. The Scorpion is unlikely to start a fight, but they have no qualms about finishing one, often with deadly precision. 

    Hunter-like instincts and a fixed modality give the Scorpion the persistence it needs to follow through on its commitments, sometimes to the point of obsession. Natives with Mars in Scorpio possess a notably single-minded focus. Notoriously secretive signs, their drive to get to the bottom of things can have an element of espionage. Mercury in Scorpio could signify a deep curiosity and a considerable capacity for research, as well as a tendency for distrust or deception. 

    This sign’s weaponized instinct is apparent in its glyph. Though similar to the “m” of Virgo, the final embellishment is sharpened and pointed outward, like the tail of a scorpion, whereas for Virgo it is directed inward. The sign rules the groin, both the reproductive and excretory organs. Scorpio is associated with birds of prey and arachnids, as well as other scavengers of the animal kingdom—all animals that provoke fear, even if harmless, and who play a vital role in cleaning up corpses. True to their martial nature, a range of military equipment has been named after scorpions, from Roman siege weapons to modern tanks. 

    Phoenix Rising by Heni Sandoval

    In dress Scorpios prefer to make bold statements, preferring deep, strong colors. Planets in Scorpio have an extra depth, intensity, or secrecy, where all is not revealed to a casual onlooker. Scorpio placements can also indicate an interest in the occult, or a taboo subject.

    Caught between truth and deception, between the heights and the depths, the Scorpion uses its emotional power to experience life in its full raw intensity. As the nights grow longer and the weather grows colder, the Sun in Scorpio reminds us to embrace the darkness as well as the light, to plumb the depths to gain a greater understanding of the world around us and within us.  

    References

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  • Libra: The Scales

    Libra: The Scales

    “Libra, whose Scales, when Autumn turns the Signs,
    And ruddy Bacchus treads the juicy Vines;
    In equal Balance, poize the Night and Day,
    Teach how to measure, and instruct to weigh”

    Marcus Manilius, Astronomica tr. Thomas Creech
    • Element: Air
    • Modality: Cardinal
    • Ruler: Venus
    • Date: September 22 – October 23
    • Symbol: Scales

    Star Lore

    The relatively faint group of stars that make up the constellation of Libra have long been depicted using the symbol of the scales. The ancient Babylonians called it MUL.zibanu, and it represented the scales of the deity Shamash, the god of justice and equity, and associated with the Sun. The symbol of the scales may have entered the Hellenistic world via ancient Egyptian mythology, where the heart of a dead person was weighed against the feather of Maat, the goddess of truth and justice, to judge if they had lived a righteous life. The Romans associated it with the scales held by the goddess Astraea, herself identified with the constellation of Virgo. 

    While now a part of the 12-sign system of the Zodiac, Libra was not recognized as an individual constellation by early Greek authors, but instead was associated with Scorpio. Known as chelae, meaning “claws” in Latin, its brightest stars represented a balance between the energies of the neighboring signs: Zubenelgenubi, Arabic for “the southern claw”, has a martial, malefic nature, whereas Zubeneschamali, “the northern claw”, is considered more benefic and is associated with legal skills. The juxtaposition of these two natures finds a remarkable parallel in Greek mythology: when Themis, the goddess of divine justice, was disregarded, she did not exact punishment herself. Instead, she left the task of delivering retribution to the winged goddess Nemesis. 

    People enjoying the fruits and harvest of fall
    The month September and the sign of Libra, represented by people gathering fruit from trees and the parable of the barren fig tree

    The glyph for Libra is derived from the Egyptian hieroglyph Akher, signifying the place of sunrise, perhaps because of the Full Moon in Libra occurring near the spring equinox. Rome was supposedly founded when the Moon was in Libra, and Roman authors such as Manilius associate the sign with legal professions, such as judges.

    With the Sun entering Libra at the autumn equinox, the equal length of night and day espouses the Libran values of balance, measure, and judgement, especially at a time of year when agricultural societies would assess the harvest before the winter ahead. In the Christian tradition, the feast day of Michaelmas fell closest to the equinox and celebrated the Archangel Michael, who was considered a warrior of justice and defender of the innocent in both Judaism and Christianity.  

    Characteristics

    The only zodiac sign represented by an inanimate object, Libra is nonetheless considered a humane sign, thanks to the goddess of truth and justice typically seen as holding the scales. Librans possess natural charm and an awareness of good manners, with their drive toward coexistence and justice at the center of what it takes to establish a civilized society.

    The average Libran, regardless of how extroverted or introverted they are, has an intuitive grasp of how social interactions work, and most can change the sides of themselves that they present to fit the context. They make a good first impression and typically can get along with anybody—or at least hide it if they cannot. Librans may not show all of their cards in social interactions, demonstrating a strategic approach that many, less subtle signs might see as disingenuous. 

    The cardinal modality of Libra is often expressed in a sanguine manner typical of an air sign and is made clear in contrast with Aries, its opposing sign. Where personal choice and autonomy are at the center of the Aries ethos, the Libran native defers to consensus and compromise, preferring to support the will of the group over that of the individual. This is echoed by the fall of the Sun in Libra: the other is often prioritized ahead of the self, with Libras often opting to forgo their desires so as not to rock the boat. Whereas an Aries might spring into action in pursuit of what they want, a Libran native might spring into action in pursuit of what others want—or at least what the Libran thinks they want. As a result, many people with strong Libra placements have difficulty making decisions, preferring to let others, or the context, decide for them. Preserving a sense of harmony is often more important than acting on their desires. 

    Image shows a prince weighing using the scales, stars in the background
    Libra, the Scales, detail from the Horoscope from ‘The book of birth of Iskandar”

    In line with the diurnal rulership of Venus, Libra espouses the ideals of romantic love, harmony, and beauty. Whereas Taurus’ Venusian nature is earthy, sensual, and rooted in fertility, Libra’s is idealistic, tied more to pleasures of the mind and soul than of the body. Those with Libra placements, especially Libra rising, command an effortless grace. They value appearances, and will shape their style—and often, that of their partner—to make a good impression. The result is a refined, if understated style of dress.

    While a Libran might not stand out in a crowd with colorful combinations, a close look reveals a sense of proportion and an appreciation for quality. Their creative power comes from this aesthetic balance, the ability to combine disparate elements into a complementary whole, with everything in its right measure. Librans prefer well-ordered living spaces, with an appearance that matches the harmony that—hopefully—reigns within their walls, and untidy or chaotic spaces can severely affect their personal sense of equilibrium. 

    Libra’s role as the exaltation of Saturn could be traced to the Romans associating the planet with their god of agriculture. The constellation’s alignment with the Sun during the autumn harvest season emphasized this, with weighing and measuring essential activities of this time of year. Similarly, Libra is a prime place for the limits and distinctions loved by Saturn—although the sign’s dedication to impartiality is not always as waterproof as they might have you believe. Rather, this association with weighing and measuring, clear in the symbolism of the scales, speaks of the central drive of the sign—the pursuit of balance.

    Librans are the peacekeepers of the zodiac, often trying to reconcile conflicting views, either in social settings or within themselves, to maintain a sense of harmony. Not unlike their sister sign, Taurus, their nonconfrontational nature can lead them to ignore issues until it is too late, or land them in the middle of conflict. Similarly, whereas Scorpios seek unfiltered passion, Librans may have trouble grappling with deeper emotions, no matter how social and affectionate they may appear on the surface. A Libran native prefers to remain dispassionate, an objective observer, rather than get caught up in the messiness of the raw human experience. An extension of this is an unwillingness to get one’s hands dirty, a tendency that can come off as laziness. Some Librans may pass up opportunities, no matter how attractive, if getting involved is too messy for their taste. 

    The scales as two boats in the ocean
    Libra by Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis, 1907

    While Virgos display a dedication to serving others or a higher cause, Librans are more interested in equality and partnership. The presence of another, often a romantic partner, provides a sense of balance to the vacillating air sign, or at least a valuable sounding board. Funnily enough for a Venus-ruled sign, this drive for partnership is less about love than reciprocity and mutuality.

    The typical Libran requires the example of another to get a better grasp on how they themselves feel. This tendency can earn the derision of more opinionated signs, but like any good legal professional, Librans prefer to gather all of the facts before coming to a conclusion. Libran natives may vacillate between rather disparate views, at least until they have made a decision. Those expecting a Libran to take their side in a dispute might end up sorely disappointed—even if they are supportive, they will not necessarily shy away from voicing the valid concerns of the other party. That being said, Librans are bridge-builders extraordinaire, and excel at helping warring parties reconcile their differences, even if only to coexist without incident. 

    In traditional astrology Libra is associated with the lower back and kidneys, the latter of which was considered the seat of fear and anxiety in traditional Chinese medicine. Libra can add a sense of refinement or a concern with balance to a planet. Libra on a house cusp can represent an area of life where the native strives for balance or an area of life where the native is keen to share experiences with others. The beauty industry is associated with Libra, as are legal professions.

    It is their reticence to choose a side or stand passionately by a conviction that gives Librans their unique capacity for justice. By weighing each situation and viewpoint as impartially as they can, the Scales strive to build an atmosphere of cooperation and coexistence. With night and day in equal measure, as the fruits of summer are weighed and stored for the coming winter, Libra knows that one of the greatest human strengths is to see through the eyes of another and, in doing so, creep closer to the truth.  

    References

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  • Virgo: The Maiden

    Virgo: The Maiden

    But modest Virgo’s Rays give polisht parts,

    And fill Men’s Breasts with Honesty and Arts;

    No tricks for Gain, nor love of Wealth dispense,

    But piercing Thoughts, and winning Eloquence;

    Marcus Manilius, Astronomica tr. Thomas Creech
    • Element: Earth
    • Modality: Mutable
    • Ruler: Mercury
    • Date: August 22 – September 21
    • Symbol: Winged maiden holding palm branch in her right hand and an ear of grain in her left

    Star Lore

    The only explicitly female constellation of the Zodiac, Virgo is associated with the symbol of the Maiden. Despite connotations of youth and virginity, the term maiden can also refer to an unmarried woman of any age; that is, one possessing the fruits of womanhood who is in charge of oneself. Once including the stars now identified as the scales of Libra, the constellation aligned with the Sun during the fall harvest in the ancient Mediterranean, and thus has been associated with several harvest and fertility goddesses throughout history, including the grain goddess Ceres, Vesta and the vestal virgins, protector of the hearth and the eternal flame of Rome, and even the Virgin Mary.

    The Maiden, often winged, is depicted holding a palm branch and an ear of grain. While the grain is a clear gesture to the fruits of the earth, the palm frond was a symbol of the Egyptian scribe god Thoth. Palms were sacred in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, providing fruit for consumption, fiber for weaving, and even writing utensils. In Greek, Roman, and later Christian symbolism, the palm frond came to represent victory, especially of the spirit over flesh—an appropriate symbol for a sign associated with purity, discernment, and moderation.

    Matthew 12.1-8. Christ is rebuked by the Pharisees when his hungry disciples began to pluck ears of corn and eat them on the Sabbath
    The month August and the sign of Virgo, represented by harvest time and the disciples of Christ plucking of ears of corn on the Sabbath.

    The Babylonians called the constellation Ab Sin, meaning “The Furrow”, evoking virgin land about to bear fruit. This is likely because the full moon in Virgo, occurring when the sun is in Pisces, occurred at the start of spring when the first shoots of crops emerged from the soil in ancient Mesopotamia. They associated Virgo with Niboba, a goddess of grain and writing who was eventually equated with Nabu, the scribe god and the personification of Mercury. The Maiden would later be associated with Ishtar and Demeter, both of whom experienced an exile in the underworld that provided a mythological explanation for the cycle of the seasons.

    In addition to Demeter, some Greek authors linked the Maiden to Astrea, the last of the gods to leave the earth following the Golden Age of mankind. The goddess of justice and purity, she grew sick of humanity’s wickedness and warring and fled to the heavens. Her eventual return to Earth was said to herald a new Golden Age. The Roman astrologer Manilius connects the constellation to the myth of Erigone, the daughter of Icarus. After learning the secret of making wine from Dionysus, Icarus was murdered by villagers who wrongly thought he had poisoned the drink. Erigone, after being led to her father’s body by Maera, their faithful dog, hung herself in grief; the gods immortalized her in the stars next to her father, who became the constellation Boötes. Maera shines alongside them as the constellation Canis Minor.

    Characteristics

    The sixth sign of the zodiac, the mutable earth sign of Virgo is both the domicile and exaltation of Mercury. This double influence of Mercury grants the Maiden both a discerning intellect and a propensity for rapid movement. Similarly, the sign’s strong connection with the written word stretches back to the palm leaves of the Egyptian Thoth and the Mesopotamian Niboba. Conservative in the same sense as Capricorn, a fellow earth sign, Virgo’s primary drives reflect the activities of the harvest: gathering, sorting, taking stock, and storage. Just as ancient societies performed these tasks to survive the coming winter, the Maiden’s focus is to ensure that the job at hand can be completed with the resources available.

    The intellectual clarity of this sign stems from a staid nature, a mind not easily clouded by passion. While both Gemini and Virgo are associated with minutiae and the activity of gathering, the Twins are motivated by an insatiable curiosity, making no value judgment on the information they have compiled. The Maiden, however, takes a more analytical approach, evaluating each tidbit carefully and discarding that which is not essential. Whereas an idealistic air sign might exhaust themselves with flights of fancy, Virgo, ever the realist, focuses their intellectual power on plans that can be actualized, however minute.

    A peasant with a red cap holding sickle and wheat chaff , background of stars
    Virgo, the Virgin, detail from the Horoscope from ‘The book of birth of Iskandar”

    The two benefics are ill at ease in Virgo. Jupiter is in detriment here, as the planet of largesse may feel cramped or inhibited in a sign so devoted to detail. Venus, meanwhile, is in her fall, as the practical and staid nature of Virgo is quite contrary to the excess of romance and pleasure favored by Venus. This underlines the difference between the Maiden and its opposite sign: while Venus in Virgo would rather be alone than with the wrong person, Venus in Pisces might think just about anyone is the “right” person. Venus in Virgo types tend to show love through help, support, and a healthy dose of constructive criticism. While individuals that resonate with the sign may be just as passionate or emotional as any other, their priorities lie with their responsibilities and their routine. An amorous Leo or Libra may choose to run off and pursue their fancy; a practical Virgo will forego their chance at a whirlwind romance if it interferes with their day-to-day routine and responsibilities.

    In the struggle to conceptualize mutable earth, some authors have suggested the image of shifting sands; despite its mythological associations with grain and fertility, the Maiden is traditionally a barren sign. The melancholic, or cold and dry, temperament of earth aligns well with the season of autumn, so another image might be that of soil loosened by farming implements. An earthy whole made up of countless tiny and shifting parts is a useful conceptualization for Virgo, whose mutability evokes an odd dual sense of stability and instability, dependability and changeability.

    While Virgos are not necessarily the neat freaks stereotypes make them out to be, many that resonate with this sign have a knack for organization. There is likely a method behind the madness of even the messiest Virgo. Whereas an overambitious Sagittarius might shoot for the stars and land on the Moon, the Virgo knows exactly what they can and cannot do with the resources at hand. Their reputation for perfectionism is tied to the high standards they set for themselves, especially when it comes to work, and their disdain for carelessness or cutting corners means they often expect the same level of excellence from those around them. This comes from an innate sense of duty—the Maiden takes their responsibilities seriously, even if they did not take them on willingly. More high-strung Virgos may even harp on the responsibilities of others, much to the chagrin of more easy-going types.

    An attention to detail and a dedication to a job well done make Virgos well-suited for the burdens of leadership. However, unlike charismatic Leo or ambitious Capricorn, Virgos rarely court positions of power. Instead, they gravitate toward supporting roles, places where they can maintain the essential, everyday structure of things, and keep things ticking. Virgos draw their sense of self-worth from their capacity for service, whether to an idea, an organization, or their fellow human beings. Strongly principled, they practice what they preach. Gentle and considerate, a Virgo expects the same from those around them, and what they see as helpful advice is easily misconstrued as criticism.

    Tied to the Maiden’s reputation for purity and the cold nature of the element of earth, Virgos tend toward restraint and modesty. This modesty, however, can serve as what Manilius terms “the best of Vices, yet ‘tis still a Vice.” However capable, the standard Virgo tends to reserve their harshest criticism for themselves, and this tendency can be downright self-effacing. Many may turn down credit where credit is due; others may nip a dream in the bud because it seems too farfetched, or pass up on opportunities so as not to risk the structure of the life they currently enjoy. Not gamblers by nature, few Virgos would willingly risk the bird in the hand, no matter how many are in the bush.

    A shadow of the maiden behind the meadow looking up to the glyph of Virgo
    Virgo by Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis, 1907

    Traditionally ruling the large and small intestines, the sign of Virgo is associated with gut feelings and intuition. This inwardly focused energy is portrayed in the sign’s glyph, with the final loop curling in on itself. While an excess of energy in the gut can make for plenty of tummy troubles, it is also the seat of good judgment. Virgos have a reputation as hypochondriacs, but at the root of this tendency is a focus on wellness. The Virgo archetype strives for harmony and moderation, both in body and mind. In line with the sign’s mercurial significations, Virgos typically have at least a passing interest in medicine and health, making fastidious doctors and nurses because of their propensity for dispassionate care. Some may also be drawn to holistic or herbal medicine, thanks to the earthy nature of the Maiden. The capacity to sort the wheat from the chaff can also make for skilled editors or writers—Charles Dickens is one famous example of a wordsmith with Ascendant in Virgo.

    As the wheel of the year turns to autumn, the nights grow longer and the threat of winter looms. The Maiden assesses the fruits of summer, gathering, storing, and planning for the hard times ahead. Fastidious, discerning, and detail-oriented, she is willing to deal with the minutiae others might hesitate to take on and remains fully aware of the gravity of her duty. She is most realized, however, when she can turn a discerning eye to dispassionately assess her own talents, and find harmony between body and mind, between the material and the intellectual.

    References

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  • A Matter of Degree: Worldview in Elizabethan England

    A Matter of Degree: Worldview in Elizabethan England

    …Our dim eyes, which though they see the less,
    Yet are they blest in their astonishment,
    Imitate heaven, whose beauties excellent
    Are in continual motion day and night,
    And move thereby more wonder and delight.”

    − “Orchestra; or, A Poem of Dancing” by John Davies

    Considered England’s golden age, the Elizabethan Era spanned the latter half of the 16th century, coinciding with the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. The Tudor heir of Henry VIII, Elizabeth ruled at a time when absolutism remained unchallenged and internal religious struggles had subsided, with Protestantism maintaining dominance. Externally, England successfully faced off against Catholic Spain and foiled various assassination plots, while the frugal policies of the Queen and her predecessors turned a bankrupt kingdom into a prosperous one, reaping the first benefits of overseas colonies and the subsequent expansion of Atlantic trade.

    Portrait of Elizabeth I of England, the Armada Portrait. The portrait was made to commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (depicted in the background).
    Elizabeth I of England, the Armada Portrait. Elizabeth’s hand rests on the globe, symbolizing her international power.

    The economic wealth and intellectual humanism of the English “Renaissance”—coupled with a highly stratified society ruled by an absolute monarch employing a highly effective network of spies—made Elizabethan England a place of stark contrasts. The relative stability and prosperity of the era saw the growth of an upwardly mobile middle class and a flourishing of the arts, particularly literature and theater, nurturing the genius of the likes of Milton, Shakespeare, and Donne, to name but a few. Caught between the tenets of the late Middle Ages and a rapidly changing world, heavily influenced by Christian thought and ancient Greek philosophy, the Elizabethan intellectual held many implicit beliefs that shaped the arts and literature of the age. At once foreign and wholly familiar to a contemporary Anglophone reader, the Elizabethan worldview represents one of the formative elements of modern Western thought. 

    Order

    The concept of order, or degree, held a central role in both the cosmic and the commonplace in such a stratified society, one where violence, plague, and poverty remained rampant, even as the higher classes enjoyed greater wealth and increasingly refined pleasures. The beginning of the Colonial Era, accompanied by massive advances in science and philosophy, presented Europeans with entirely new ideas, commodities and conceptions of civilization. This infinitely varied universe, albeit seemingly chaotic, was ruled by an archetypal “Law” protecting creation from dissolution; the political aspect of this perspective saw the Queen and her council as omnipotent representatives of earthly law. Chaos and order thus stood in opposition to one another, with the former representing the state of the cosmos before creation and the latter representing the unifying power of God that makes life possible. Mutability may have been ubiquitous in the sublunar sphere, but all changes fell within the plan of an omniscient Creator.

    This dualistic worldview helped justify the havoc of the Elizabethan lived experience, despite the assumed perfection of creation. The primordial Fall of Lucifer and the original sin committed by Adam and Eve were responsible for the distance between cosmic archetypes and chaotic reality. Sin and salvation formed counterparts to chaos and order, with sin increasing entropy and salvation bringing human souls closer to the organizing force of God’s will.

    Picturing Creation

    Great chain of being by Didacus Valades
    1579 drawing of the Great Chain of Being from Didacus Valades, Rhetorica Christiana

    Three principal images illustrate the Elizabethan view of creation: The Great Chain of Being, corresponding planes, and The Great Dance. Often used complementarily, these images all integrated elements of Christian doctrine and Greek philosophy. Given the importance of God in Protestant England, each image served as a testament to the power of the Creator and the infinite logic of His creation.

    The Great Chain of Being was seen as stretching from the highest angels at the foot of God’s throne to the most insignificant inanimate object. This concept arranged the cosmos in a hierarchical series of classes, each possessing an aptitude, a certain attribute at which the members of that class excelled. Angels excelled at adoration, being capable of comprehending God directly; men excelled at learning; beasts in the strength of their desires and drives; plants in their capacity for growth; even rocks excelled in their durability. Each class also contained a primate, a head of the class that strove for the class above it: the dolphin among fish, fire among the elements, the king among men.

    Whereas The Great Chain presents a vertical framework for the universe, the concept of corresponding planes is horizontal. Correspondence had tied the movement of the heavens with the development of human affairs since ancient Babylon, most conspicuously through the practice of astrology. In correspondences the part resembled the whole, the micro the macro, and vice-versa: the sun represented the king, the ruler of the heavens and the ruler of the state, while the queen drew comparison to the moon, ruling over her court of stars. The order of the state was meant to resemble the order of the universe, and disorder in the heavens—that is, an unfortunate alignment of the planets—meant disorder in the state. Another parallel linked the composition of the cosmos and the composition of the human body, not unlike the ancient concept of the Zodiac Man. The architecture of the human soul was also projected onto natural phenomena. For Elizabethan literati, the virtue of love was comparable to the eternal light of fixed stars, while the tempests that shook the sky were likened to the passions that rack the human heart.

    The third conception of the universe was itself a kind of correspondence: The Great Dance. Described as “degree in motion”, in this model earthly, celestial, and divine hierarchies moved in varied paths within a perfect whole, from the movement of the angels to the dances of the royal court. The concept of creation as a musical act dates back to ancient Greece, and the Elizabethan Christian mind attributed man’s inability to hear this music to the corrupting influence of the Fall.

    The Dance of the Heavens

    In The Great Dance, the planets and stars were thought to dance to the music of the spheres, just as the kingdom moved under the direction of Queen Elizabeth, the primum mobile. While the average educated Elizabethan had access to Copernicus’ findings, the Ptolemaic geocentric model of the universe remained the predominant philosophical conception of man’s place in the cosmos. God and the angels moved in the realm of perfection beyond the sphere of the fixed stars, while the sublunary realm inhabited by men was a place of disorder and decay.

    The Elizabethan mind identified three moving forces of history: providence, fortune, and human character. Fortune, often depicted as a wheel, was continually in motion, subjecting kings and commoners alike to its “slings and arrows”. The wandering stars and the luminaries—now known as the seven classical planets—represented the influence of God’s changeless order on the sublunary sphere, forming the middle link between eternity and mutability. Sometimes associated with angels, the planets, like Nature, were forces without initiative, set in motion by the Creator. They were seen as acting on the physical predispositions of man determined by the combination of elements within each individual but were not considered to possess absolute power to bind or agency of their own.

    Both the Christian worldview and new advances in astronomy challenged the power of the stars as agents of fate. While the stars did not influence the immortal part of man, they present an open book relating the progression of earthly events, albeit an account often beyond the wit of man to read. The correspondence of planetary movements with human affairs implied a balanced system, a testament to God’s infinite wisdom. Astrology remained a significant and respected practice, with the work of William Lilly representing what was still a flourishing art in the 17th century.

    Man: The Supreme Commonplace

    All things within the sublunary sphere were seen as composed of the four Aristotelean elements: fire, air, water, and earth, themselves composed of the opposing qualities of hot and cold, dry and moist. A perfect mixture of these elements was eternal, while an imperfect mix meant a tendency toward death and decay. The effect of the elements, the influence of the stars, and God’s intervention determined how the world functioned, with the impermanence of life justified by the corrupting influence of the Fall. All things had their place within The Great Chain, with even the elements arranged hierarchically. Fire, considered the noblest element, rose upward, while heavy earth, trending downward, represented the dregs of the universe.

    Man at the center of the cosmos
    The Universal Man, Liber Divinorum Operum of St. Hildegard of Bingen, 1165

    Despite the Christian pessimism regarding the innately sinful, corruptible nature of humanity, man formed a nodal point in the Elizabethan chain of being, the connection between the material and the spiritual. One of the most important correspondence was the idea of man as a little world, containing all the elements of creation within himself but lacking in each. As during the Middle Ages, Elizabethan medical theory focused on the balance of the four humors, which corresponded to the four elements, within the human body. The predominance of a certain humor would mark the man, and their mixture formed his temperament, which caused character.

    This physical theory emphasized man’s proximity to nature and the influence of the planets over his internal and external life. However, the immortal part of man contained equal capacity for sin and salvation. Whereas angels understand creation intuitively, man must do so gradually through the use of discursive reason. Beginning in ignorance, a man’s first task was to know himself before he could learn about the universe and its Creator. Learning thus took on an ethical or religious quality, with knowledge gained through painstaking study bringing the individual closer to salvation and God.

    Brave New World

    Just as Elizabethan England enjoyed stability as continental Europe was caught in the throes of religious and territorial warfare, the Elizabethan worldview represented an immutable order governing an increasingly complex and unclassifiable world. Concepts such as the correspondences and The Great Chain could no longer command the mathematical precision of medieval thought; discoveries across the ocean and beyond presented Europeans with unfamiliar information that would not fit into older philosophies, which became increasingly metaphorical. At the center of this new kind of globalization stood the self-made man, increasingly drawn from the middle classes. From William Shakespeare to Sir Walter Raleigh, the learned man wrote plays and poetry, sailed to distant continents, and gazed at the stars, paving the way to the modern world we live in today.

    Further Reading

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  • Abu Ma’shar: Persian Prince of Astrology

    Abu Ma’shar: Persian Prince of Astrology

    “Insofar as the higher bodies signify the things existing in this world through the powers of their natural motions, then what is the advantage of being ignorant of this knowledge?”

    Abu Ma’shar

    Sa’id Shadhan, a ninth-century Muslim student of astrology, recorded several anecdotes about his teacher, a man named Abu Ma’shar. On a trip to Baghdad, Abu Ma’shar was staying with a friend who also had some knowledge of astrology. Seeing that the Moon in Leo was squaring Mars, Abu Ma’shar advised his fellow travelers against embarking at that hour, as it boded ill for the journey. The other travelers laughed at what they considered superstition and embarked anyway. Abu Ma’shar remained with his friend and the two ate, drank, and conversed. A short while later, the ragged remnants of the group returned. They had been attacked by thieves, who had killed some of them and robbed the rest. The travelers, blaming Abu Ma’shar for their misfortune, pursued the astrologer with sticks and stones. Barely escaping, Abu Ma’shar swore never again to discuss “the science of [astrology] with the man in the street.”

    The protagonist of this colorful tale, Abu Ma’shar, was in many ways the foremost representative of his science in the Medieval Islamic world. The author of more than 50 works on astronomy and astrology, the most famous court astrologer in Baghdad, and an important proponent behind the preservation of the works of Aristotle and Ptolemy via translation into Arabic, Abu Ma’shar would become to astrology what Ptolemy was to astronomy. Known as Albumasar in Medieval Latin and Apomasar in Byzantine Greek, his texts in translation reintroduced astrology to regions where the art had all but disappeared, causing a revival in the West along with the general transmission of Hellenistic knowledge that sparked the European Renaissance.

    Origins

    Jafar ibn Muhammad Abu Ma’shar al-Balkhi was born in Balkh, in what is now Afghanistan, at the end of the eighth century A.D. His birth year is typically recognized as 787, thanks to an anonymous horoscope cited in one of his works, but in all likelihood, Abu Ma’shar did not know his own nativity. Balkh itself was an important frontier city in the new Abbasid caliphate, conquered as recently as the seventh century. One of the principal urban centers in the Khorasan region, Balkh boasted the full religious, cultural and intellectual diversity of Central Asia. Known as Bactra by the Greeks, it had long been a Hellenistic outpost in the region and had since become a significant site for both Zoroastrians and Buddhists. The city also boasted significant Jewish, Nestorian, Manichean, and Hindu populations. A pro-Iranian intellectual elite, of which Abu Ma’shar was a member, dominated the city during the Abbasid era, having supported the new caliphate in their revolt against the Umayyad.

    Scholars at an Abbasid library. Maqamat of al-Hariri

    During the reign of al-Ma’mun (813-833), Abu Ma’shar moved to Baghdad, the capital city of an empire that stretched from the mountains of the Hindu Kush to the northern coast of Africa. The ringed city, one of the world’s largest at the time, was a commercial and scientific hub. The libraries of its “House of Wisdom” boasted more books than any other in the world, with an intellectual elite of Arab, Persian, Jewish, Nestorian, and Syriac scholars writing in the international scientific language of Arabic. Thanks to the work of prominent intellectuals such as Masha’allah and al-Kindi, the city was also the foremost center for astrological learning, a science that had been transmitted to Arab dominions from Egypt and the Mesopotamian city of Harran.

    Abu Ma’shar, however, came to Baghdad not as an astrologer but as a student of the Hadith, the sayings and traditions of the prophet Muhammad and his followers. Suspicious of astrology, mathematics, and philosophy, Abu Ma’shar became embroiled in a disagreement with al-Kindi, then the most prominent Arab philosopher in the city. Al-Kindi advised Abu Ma’shar to study mathematics, and it was in his 47th year that he did just that. Devoting himself to the study of mathematics and the motions and significance of the celestial bodies, Abu Ma’shar would soon become the most famous astrologer in the Islamic world.

    We have many anecdotes relating Abu Ma’shar’s exploits and proficiency as a practicing astrologer, handed down by students such as Shadhan, or recounted in Ibn Tawus’ 12th-century Biographies of Astrologers. All contributed to the myth of the man. He cast the horoscope of an Indian prince, served as a court astrologer in Baghdad, and advised princes on many matters. He even accompanied the ruler al-Muwaffaq on his campaigns against the Zanj in Basra. He may have been epileptic and was apparently fond of drinking. Many of these anecdotes paint a portrait of an astute individual and talented astrologer not particularly given to either moral or intellectual rigor.

    For the most part, his reputation protected him from persecution, although he was once flogged during the reign of al-Musta’in for practicing astrology. He was also briefly imprisoned by Lenies, the king of the Persians, who was displeased by his predictions. The king promised to let him go free if his predictions proved true but threatened to kill him if they did not. Fortunately for the astrologer, he was right on the mark.

    Within the field of astrology, Abu Ma’shar’s principal contribution was that of synthesis. Working at the heart of the Abbasid caliphate during the golden age of Islam, he had access to Egyptian, Greek, Syriac, Persian, and Indian sources regarding the movements and attributes of the stars and planets. He frequently employed Indian techniques, treating the lunar nodes as equal in power to the luminaries. He also contributed to the number of lots and recognized as many as 25 conditions of the planets.

    Astrology and the Oneness of Wisdom

    At the heart of Abu Ma’shar’s philosophical justification for astrology—and, to some extent, at the heart of Islamic astrology in general—lay three key concepts. The first, tawhid, is an Islamic doctrine proclaiming a oneness of wisdom that parallels the essential oneness of God. This doctrine allowed Islamic thinkers to draw from the diverse sources of the ancient world in search of a unified, divine truth. The second, transmitted from distinctly pagan roots, was the Neoplatonic model of the cosmos. This concept had reached Islam by way of the city of Harran, in northwestern Mesopotamia, an influential center of Hermetic philosophy and astrology and the last refuge of the pre-Islamic Mandaeans.

    Ruins showing remains of a ancient university against the clear white clouds and blue sky
    Ruins of the Harran University

    The inhabitants of Harran resisted conversion until the 11th century, engaging star worship based on the Hermetica, texts attributed to the legendary Hermes Trismegistus. Their geocentric model of the cosmos consisted of three spheres. The outermost sphere was known as the divine sphere. The middle, or ethereal, sphere, contained the stars and the planets. Both revolved around the innermost hylic, or sublunar, sphere, where the four elements met in a state of constant change.

    For the Harranians, the human soul descended from the divine sphere to the earthly sphere, and so one’s spiritual journey involved striving to reconnect with this divine source. However, they believed that, instead of addressing the divine source in worship, it was better to address the stars and planets as intermediaries between the human and the divine. The form of this worship depended upon the respective attributes of each celestial body and thus relied heavily on astronomical observation and astrological knowledge.

    In recognizing this Neoplatonic approach to astrology, Abu Ma’shar attested to the scientific and religious reasons for studying the stars. Not only could their motions be scientifically predicted, but through the association between zodiac signs, planets, human behavior, and certain plants, animals, and elements, the astrologer could both predict the outcome of an event and even influence it through a practice known as theurgy.

    Abu Ma’shar explained the necessary techniques for working astrologers in his seminal work, The Great Introduction to the Science of Astrology, written around 850. With that and his Zij al-Hazarat, an astrological compendium drawing on Persian, Hellenic, and Indian sources and techniques, Abu Ma’shar attempted to reconstruct a unified “antediluvian” astrology as it had originally been revealed to humans by God.

    Main image shows Sun with a man seated beside a beast. Beneath that there are 5 images showing man involved in 5 different occupations as per the 5 traditional planets.
    Page of a 15th-century manuscript of the “Book of nativities” by Abu Ma’shar

    As opposed to the talisman-using Mandaeans of Harran, Abu Ma’shar’s primary interest lay more in predicting and justifying the course of history rather than influencing it. This brings us to the third pillar of Islamic astrology influencing his work, this time from Sassanian Persian roots: historical astrology. Initially introduced to the Arab world by caliph al-Mansur to solidify Abbasid legitimacy, historical astrology involved using mundane techniques such as transits to explain the course of history.

    In his now lost work, Book of the Thousands, Abu Ma’ashar used a system of conjunctions, Aries Ingresses, and profections to explain the course of history. He attributed the greatest importance to the conjunctions of Jupiter and Saturn, the slowest-moving Hellenistic planets. Their conjunctions, spaced 120 degrees apart on the zodiac, occurred every 20 years, and every 260 years they moved into a new triplicity. The cycle of conjunctions would begin anew every 960 years, giving astrologers three main subdivisions to mark periodicity in history. Abu Ma’shar aimed to use the technique to predict the rise of tyrants or prophets and ultimately underscored the temporary nature of all human societies—including the Abbasid caliphate. The astrologer predicted that the caliphate would last for another three hundred years after his death, a prediction not too far off the mark from the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258.

    The Legacy of a Legend

    According to Ibn al-Nadim, a 10th-century bookseller, Abu Ma’shar died in Wasit, Iraq in 886 at around the age of 100. The astrologer’s fame outlived the astrologer himself, with his works commanding considerable influence and popularity in the Arab-speaking world for the next few centuries.

    His treatise On the Nativities of Men and Women circulated widely, with the 14th-century scholar Isfahani copying excerpts into his Kitab al-Bulhan. To the West, the abbreviated version of The Great Introduction became the first astrological manual to be translated into Latin, and Abu Ma’shar’s name became virtually synonymous with astrology in late Medieval Western Europe and Byzantine Eastern Europe. Flores Astrologie and the Book on Religions and Dynasties, two mundane astrology texts, saw translation into Greek and Latin and were much discussed by European thinkers, as did his Book of the Revolutions of the Years of the Nativities.

    Through his astrological treatises, his embracing of Hellenistic philosophy, and the promotion and preservation of the work of both Ptolemy and Aristotle, Abu Ma’shar influenced thinkers as diverse as Biruni, Albert the Great, and Roger Bacon. Ultimately, this colorful and accomplished character, through his prodigious literary output and synthesizing mind, became one of the core conduits by which Hellenistic astrology again moved west to experience yet another golden age in a radically different cultural context.

    References

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  • Leo: The Lion

    Leo: The Lion

    What Inclinations Leo’s Rays dispense
    Is quickly known, ’tis plain to Common Sense,
    […]
    He makes Men Warm, their Passions quickly rais’d,
    Like Boys soon angry, and as soon appeas’d:
    But Plain and Honest all their Thoughts sincere;
    Pure as the Sun, and like the Water clear.

    Marcus Manilius, Astronomica tr. Thomas Creech
    • Element: Fire
    • Modality: Fixed
    • Ruler: The Sun
    • Date: July 23 – August 22
    • Symbol: Lion

    Star Lore

    For the first of his 12 labors, Hercules was tasked with slaying a ferocious lion terrorizing the hills of Nemea in the northwest of the Peloponnese. The lion’s hide was impervious to swords and arrows, so Hercules relied on brute force to overcome it. Blocking one of the entrances to its lair, he clubbed and strangled the beast before using one of its claws to skin it. Afterward, the hero wore the pelt as a cloak, benefitting from its supernatural strength. To commemorate this mythical feat, the ancient Greeks associated the constellation of Leo with the Nemean Lion. 

    Acrylic painting of a majestic Lion
    Leo the Lion – acrylic painting by Heni Sandoval

    First identified as early as 4,000 BC, the constellation of Leo has long been tied to the symbol of the Lion, appearing in cultures as diverse as those of India, Persia, and Syria. The Babylonians may have associated the star cluster with a great dog, or perhaps the Humbaba, the guardian of the cedar forest where the gods lived, slain by Gilgamesh. Both its prominence in important classical sun myths and its rulership over the hottest part of summer could serve as the reason for the sign being identified as the sole domicile of the Sun. Hot and dry, the part of the sky it ruled was seen as the antithesis of the wetness of its opposite sign, Aquarius.

    Many ancient astrologers warned against any activity involving liquids – from the administering of medicines to sea travel – when either luminary was in the sign. The constellation’s main star, Regulus, was known as the “little king” by both the Babylonians and Renaissance polymath Nicolaus Copernicus. Once the brilliant marker of the summer solstice and one of the Royal Stars of Ancient Persia—the Watcher of the North—it is now one of the faintest first-magnitude stars in the sky. 

    Characteristics

    The fixed fire sign of Leo, as the domicile of the Sun, best represents both the life-giving and destructive qualities of the diurnal luminary. Unlike the flash-in-the-pan nature of cardinal Aries or the wandering wildfire of Sagittarius, Leo is the everlasting flame, burning bright and steady during the hottest part of the year. Their fixed nature translates into a potentially rigid view of life, a moral sense that can easily trend toward the idealistic or dogmatic.

    Less impulsive than the other fire signs, Leo is nonetheless choleric, its hot and dry nature giving way to a temperament inclined to charisma, anger, and enthusiasm alike. Just as the Sun emits its rays, Leonine energy is primarily directed outward; even for the more introverted Leo, self-expression and the capacity to stand out become primary drives. And, whether it is subtly or boldly expressed, many are drawn to the charismatic shine of natives born under this sign.

    landscape with hot sun and sheep grazing
    The month July and the sign of Leo, represented by a rural landscape in summer and Christ as the Good Shepherd.

    Leo’s glyph represents the mane and tail of the lion, and some of the sign’s significations align with the characteristics long associated with the animal. The King of Cats remains a potent symbol of pride, majesty, and power, although it is important to note that in reality lions tend to be scavengers or opportunistic hunters—and, tellingly, female lionesses typically do most of the heavy lifting—as the animals care little for the morals humans have associated with them.

    Using the imagery of butchers, Manilius identifies a cruel streak or predatory instinct in this bestial sign, although he is quick to note that this bend toward violence is without malice. Always ready to protect their pride or that of their loved ones, the Lion can be devastating in its response to a perceived threat, and any victory that is not total may feel like a defeat. 

    Typical of felines and the buoyancy of fire signs, the Leonine native prefers high places. Another key metaphor for understanding the Leo archetype is, in fact, the ruler. Think of the kings and queens of fairytales: the good are magnanimous, dignified, and proud, while the bad are haughty, self-important, or even despotic. The ruler, however, draws power from recognition.

    Some Leos may succumb to vanity and associate with people clearly beneath them, or those wily enough to shower them with the right kind of flattery. Like most cats, Leos like to be petted and are prone to favoritism. The poorly adjusted Leo might be bullying or condescending if they feel their position is threatened. They may resort to pettiness or sensationalism to secure the recognition in life they feel they deserve, be it positive or negative. At the same time, their legendary pride is easily bruised, and they will avoid at all costs being made a fool of. 

    the astrology of sign of leo from the book of birth of iskandar depicts a brown lion among the stars
    Leo – the Lion, detail from the Horoscope from ‘The book of birth of Iskandar”

    Given the right respect, however, Leonine natives are generous and broad-minded, as quick to reciprocate compliments as they would be to respond to a perceived insult. Their optimism and innate sense of self free them from pettiness, granting them the sense that everything will work out for the best. Leos have a reputation for pampering themselves and can be extravagant or ostentatious. They feel they deserve the best and will act accordingly. Leo on a house cusp represents the area of life where the native may hope to exert their will as the expression of their unique self. Even Leo natives who have shaken off the need to be the center of attention need a kingdom of their own where they can reign supreme. 

    Both the giving and receiving of attention are of prime importance to the Leo native. In contrast to its opposite sign of Aquarius, concerned with the collective will, the main focus of the Lion is discovering how the individual can make a unique and important contribution to their world. Despite the stereotype, this fixation on attention does not necessarily result in egotistical show-stealers.

    The Leo in any group might be the one in the spotlight, whether advertently or inadvertently, but just as often they are the ones cheering others on, encouraging them to reach their full potential, or making sure everyone heard that clever joke from that one friend who has a wonderful sense of humor but an unfortunate habit of mumbling. The Lion hates to be ignored and will make sure those that are important to them are always heard. In the film of their own life, however, they will always play the starring role. 

    The Leonine quest for self-expression may manifest in leadership roles, in the literal spotlight (Leos, like Pisces, are often supremely interested in the drama of life), in managerial or marketing roles, or even in supporting a friend when the going gets rough. Like the other fire signs, Leo natives excel at throwing themselves fully into projects—and, thanks to the sign’s fixity, they have the follow-through to see projects to their completion. They are not easily discouraged or defeated and possess the enthusiasm needed to get others to believe in a project’s importance, even if the Leo does not fully believe it themselves.

    They have the capacity to rise to almost any task and are ready for the responsibility of leadership. Their powers lie in command and delegation, however, and like other fire signs may falter when it comes to the nitty-gritty of how things really get done. However, this capacity to rise above is key for leadership, as getting bogged down in the details can derail as many plans as overconfidence.

    the glyph of leo as the sun in the sky with the shape of a lion resting beside the sea
    Leo by Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis, 1907

    Leo rules the heart and the spine, appropriately enough for a sign that is typically both upright and big-hearted. Beyond wild cats, the sign rules any animal associated with majesty, especially peacocks and swans. Leo natives, especially those with Leo rising, tend to make bold fashion statements and value crafting a distinctive style. Planets in Leo often represent the facets of an individual that demand or appreciate attention. The Lion must be an active player in whatever drama is unfolding before them, and appreciate seeing their contributions recognized. Mercury in Leo, for example, is bold and apologetic, whereas Venus in Leo may love being showered with attention – or having a partner they can show off. Like the Leo native themselves, these planets need self-confidence to present themselves positively.

    From the intense flames of the sun and the ferocity of the lion to the regality of the fairy-tale ruler, Leo represents the highest expression of the individual self. The fixed heat of summer can be overbearing and choleric, but it supports both life and inspiration. Ultimately, every Leonine native is looking for a chance to shine, in their unique way, and those around them will be sure to benefit from their magnanimous rays.

    References

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  • Cancer: The Crab

    Cancer: The Crab

    But glowing Cancer (where the Summer Sun
    With fiery Chariots bounds the Torrid Zone,
    Drives fiercely up, then with a bending Rein
    Sinks down, and runs the lower Rounds again.)
    As close in’s Shell he lies, affords his Aid
    To greedy Merchants, and inclines to Trade;

    Marcus Manilius, Astronomica tr. Thomas Creech
    • Element: Water
    • Modality: Cardinal
    • Ruler: Moon
    • Date: June 21 – July 22
    • Symbol: Crab

    Star Lore

    As Hercules fought the many-headed Hydra in the swamp of Lerna, Hera commanded a lowly crab to pinch the hero’s feet, hoping that a tiny misstep might cause him to fail. The crab managed to fix its claw around the hero’s toe but was crushed just seconds later, and Hercules went on to defeat the Hydra. Hera, impressed by the crab’s fearlessness in the face of certain death, placed the loyal crustacean in the night sky in honor of its devotion and tenacity.

    The constellation of Cancer has long been associated with shelled animals, from the tortoise in China and Babylon to crawfish and lobsters throughout Medieval Europe. Those familiar with Tarot may recognize it as the crustacean depicted on the Moon card. The Egyptians associated it with the sacred scarab beetle, tasked with rolling the Sun across the sky.

    Indeed, it is in this sign that the Sun reaches its highest elevation in the sky of the northern hemisphere on the summer solstice. The constellation itself, however, is a dim scattering of stars, all below the 4th magnitude. It contains a nebulous cloud now known as the Beehive that ancient astrologers called the Praesepe, or multitude, long identified as a feminine area of the sky where energy dissipates.

    Cancer month depicted by bright Sun and profitable agricultural estate.
    The month June and the sign of Cancer, represented by a large agricultural estate being profitably maintained and managed, and by the parable of the Rich Fool.

    Cancer’s role as the site of the summer solstice also fits neatly with the Hermetic view of the heavens. The sphere of the Moon, the planetary ruler of Cancer, was considered the closest sphere to the Earth. The constellation was known as “The Gate of Men”, where souls acquired their physical form before descending to Earth, in contrast to the Saturn-ruled sign of Capricorn, known as “The Gate of the Gods”, where souls shed their last ties to Earth before reaching heaven. Both the materialistic rulership of the Moon and the tenacity of Hera’s humble crab live on in the contemporary significance of the sign of Cancer.   

    Characteristics

    The fourth sign of the zodiac, Cancer the Crab is the sole domicile of the Moon. Its season begins with the summer solstice, the longest day of the year before the gradual descent into winter. By Cancer season the heat of the summer sun is undeniable, and the full force of life is evident in the fruits of nature.

    A phlegmatic and nocturnal sign, Cancers are receptive and easily impacted by changes in their environment, not unlike their armored namesake. Just as the Sun grants light to the Moon, the Crab is immersed in the natural and emotional cycles associated with the nocturnal luminary. As the cardinal water sign, Cancers are acutely aware of the changeability of the emotional world, but their moods are apt to wax and wane, just like the Moon herself. This makes them less erratic than mutable Pisces, but less stoic than fixed Scorpio.

    Associated with emotional release and expression, they embody a sort of predictable unpredictability, a convoluted moodiness that defies logic. While sometimes sulky, Cancers typically exude a gentle and comforting energy around those they care for. At ease in the moist nature of the sign, here the Moon’s powers are at their fullest.

    While it is a cardinal sign, the Crab is far too easily bruised—and therefore too wary—to excel at head-on confrontation. Lacking the horns of Aries or Capricorn, the Cancerian approach is to sidle up alongside a challenge, scurry around it, and hide behind its shell at the first sign of danger. The crab’s hard shell protects a delicate exterior, but it is ultimately caution that serves as its most effective defense.

    Like Pisces, Cancer tends to be receptive, rather than reactive. But while the spiritual generosity of the Fish leaves it at the whim of its surroundings, the Crab’s prefers to withdraw than be at the mercy of the tides, making it perhaps the only cardinal sign that tends to move backward – or sideways – rather than forward. In fact, Cancer is also the only constellation depicted as facing backward as it moves along the ecliptic.

    the sign of cancer depicted by the crab in the constellation of stars
    Cancer – the Crab, detail from the Horoscope from ‘The book of birth of Iskandar”

    This reluctance for direct confrontation explains Mars experiencing its fall in Cancer. The planet’s hot and dry nature is at odds with the cold and moist sign, and the lesser malefic’s preference for direct confrontation is contrary to the Crab’s wary nature. The typical Cancer prefers passive aggression to open combat, nursing grudges instead of openly acknowledging a problem. However, be aware that the sign possesses a persistence that belies its shy exterior – even in conflict, the Crab may forgive but it does not forget.

    Hera’s crab bravely sacrificed itself but it failed to make a dent in Hercules’ defenses; a Cancer looking to emerge victorious has much to benefit from a cautious, sideways approach. The Crab that sidles up alongside the problem can consider it from a new angle, forming a unique perspective that can confuse less intuitive minds but contains a multitude of solutions. The crab’s tenacity and aptitude for idiosyncratic approaches make it a surprisingly creative problem-solver.

    At once protective and comforting, the glyph for Cancer may represent the claws of the crab, curled in a defensive position, or the cradling arms or even breasts, signifiers of motherly care and the part of the body traditionally ruled by the sign. Less effective as weapons than the Scorpion’s stinging tail, the Crab’s claws are better suited for grasping – and never letting go. The Crab can be clingy and may have trouble letting go of people, places, and relationships, even when they do not serve their best interests anymore. Many Cancers would rather be mistreated than abandoned.

    While emotional connection may trump physical pleasure for the average Cancerian native, the Moon’s rulership over the material sphere also plays a role in the sign’s signification. Both sensing and sensual, the Crab may collect objects with as much zeal as people. Drawn to the past, either personal or collective, Cancers may collect mementos, souvenirs, and even antiques. Those with strong Cancer placements have a powerful memory for sensations. Many collect and file away both objects and memories like love letters to the past, so that they may leaf through them to relive emotional states, the good, the bad, and the sad.

    Cancer, the Crab and the Sun and Sea, acrylic painting
    Into the Sea – acrylic painting by Heni Sandoval

    In contrast to the discipline and material concerns of Capricorn, Cancer is empathic and nurturing, although both signs are associated with support and upholding the structures of family and tradition. Cancer, ruled by the Moon, channels the maternal, while Saturnian Capricorn wields paternal authority. The placement and strength of the Moon in a native’s chart may represent the influence of their mother or the state of their maternal instincts.

    Natives with heavy Cancer placements make natural caretakers and may channel this energy into caring for family, friends, pets, or even plants. Depending on the receiver, though, this care may range from reassuring and supportive to overly sentimental and cloying. Giving and receiving much from any kind of emotional bond, Cancers possess a strong intuition, a rich imagination, and an active sense of danger. They may have an almost-psychic sense of empathy, with a tendency to take pride in anticipating the emotional needs of others.

    They crave emotional closeness and may balk at interacting with those they consider superficial or insensitive. At the same time, they can be easily misled by their emotions, resulting in an overly cautious approach in some cases and an outright refusal to recognize warning signs in others. Importantly, however, this emotional receptivity is tied to a kind of spiritual fertility, a capacity to nourish.

    The nourishing quality of the sign has ancient origins. Not only does the Moon influence the tides and the reproductive cycles of humans, but it has also been associated with a motherly feminine figure throughout the history of the West, an archetype central to the sign of the Crab.

    The Thema Mundi, the theoretical chart of the creation of the universe, has Cancer rising with the Moon on the ascendant. In the Masonic allegory of the death and rebirth of the Sun, it is Cancer that brings the Sun back to life, although it is the fixed fire sign of Leo that brings the diurnal luminary to its fullest strength. The capacity to nurture may contain an element of martyrdom – the Crab that bit Hercules’ toe was not the last to give its life for a cause.

    Belonging to and contributing to a group, whether a biological or adopted family or even a nation, is essential to the Crab’s sense of self and security. Cancer’s wariness of strangers, at its most extreme, may be exclusive, even xenophobic. Humor, another of the Crab’s sideways weapons, can be used to emphasize an in-group at the expense of outsiders. A pessimistic, often self-deprecating sense of humor can split sides, or disarm a perceived threat.

    The Cancer sign depicted by rocky arena by the seas and the crab
    Cancer by Mikalojus, 1907

    Stereotypically stingy, the Crab’s preservative approach to the material – especially money –makes it the exaltation of Jupiter. The typical Pisces or Sagittarius native is too open-handed to save for the future. The Crab’s concern for supporting a family typically makes it a conscientious investor, apt to save, and talented in business. Many Cancers end up as managers or business people and may show a knack for all things financial even if they build their careers elsewhere.

    The drive to collect wealth stems not from an egotistical pursuit of glory, but rather a distinct nest-building tendency not unlike that of Taurus. While their moods may change as swiftly as the face of the Moon, Cancers require material stability and emotional security in their homes to thrive. Often, Cancer on a house cusp can represent where the native may exercise their home-building tendencies—Cancer in the 9th house, for example, could signify a tendency to build a home abroad.

    Elevated to the heavens through an act of selfless devotion, the Crab nurtures the Sun back to health. In doing so it channels the maternal energy of the Moon, itself illuminated by the Sun, and embodies that most essential cycle of life and death. Cancer peers into the past as other, less cautious signs plunge into the future, and what it sees reminds it – even on the longest day of the year – of the inevitable descent into winter and death that will eventually confront all living things. And so it cherishes the memories, steps carefully, and shares all it can with those that make life most worth living.   

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  • Gemini: The Twins

    Gemini: The Twins

    Soft Gemini to easier Arts incline
    For softer Studies fit an Infant Sign.
    They tune rough Words, or they incline to Sing,
    To stop the Pipe, or strike the speaking String;
    Through Reeds they blow the Natural Sound in Measure,
    Gay their delight, and e’en their Pains are Pleasure;
    Wars they avoid, Old Age they chace with Song,
    And when Late Death o’retakes them they are Young.

    — Manilius
    • Element: Air
    • Group: Mutable
    • Ruler: Mercury
    • Date: May 21 – June 20
    • Symbol: Twins

    Star Lore

    The twin stars at the head of the constellation of Gemini have long been associated with legendary pairs. Known as the Great Twins in ancient Mesopotamia, they were initially associated with minor deities linked to Nergal, the god of war, but later came to represent Gilgamesh and Enkidu, each at opposite ends of human nature; the urbane, civilized warrior-king and the hairy wild man that became his greatest companion. The ancient Egyptians simply called them “Two Stars” but later may have identified them with an early version of the half-brothers Apollo and Hercules, one human and the other divine but both equal in strength. Castor and Pollux, the name currently associated with the stars and the constellation as a whole, comes from the Greco-Roman myth of the duo also known as Dioscuri.

    Born from an egg after Zeus courted Leda, the wife of Spartan King Tyndareus, while in the form of a swan, Castor and Pollux were technically half-brothers. Incidentally, the inter-species union between god and queen also created the ill-fatedly beautiful Helen of Troy. Pollux, the son of Zeus, was immortal and possessed super-human strength, whereas Castor, the son of Tyndareus, was mortal but clever, skilled at horsemanship, music, and the arts. The twins joined the crew of the Argonauts, where they served with distinction, saving a number of their crewmates during a storm—the stars, when seen together, were considered good omens for sailors, and many ships, including the one that carried St. Paul, used the twins as figureheads.

    Acrylic painting of Two boy fairies, the twins, depicting the sign Gemini.
    Twin Fairies by Heni Sandoval

    Later in the voyage, however, the Dioscuri were embroiled in a feud with another set of twins, Idas and Lynceus, born to the wife of Tyndareus’ half-brother and potentially the product of Poseidon’s own sexual exploits. After a disagreement involving cattle or spoils of war, depending on the version of the myth, the two sets of twins fought. Both Idas and Lynceus were killed, thanks to the ferocity of Pollux and the intervention of Zeus, but Castor fell as well, leaving Pollux brokenhearted.

    Unwilling to live without his twin, Pollux sought to renounce his immortality. Touched by this show of love, Zeus agreed to let the Twins live together, splitting their time between the underworld of Tartarus and heaven, and commemorated their brotherly love in the stars. Interestingly enough, the actual star Castor, the brightest in the constellation in ancient times, has dimmed to become a 2nd magnitude star over the centuries, while Pollux has increased in brightness to take its brother’s place as the brightest.

    Each of the myths of the Twins is linked to brotherly love, the pursuit of immortality, and the tension between vitality and decay. In both the meditations on mortality of the grief-stricken Gilgamesh to the divine bond of Castor and Pollux, we see a pair of opposites linked by love, extremes that represent humankind’s position between the Earth and the heavens.

    Characteristics

    Like its symbol the Twins, the mutable air sign of Gemini represents the consolidation of diametric opposites through investigation, curiosity, and experience. Just as the legendary pairs of Castor and Pollux and Gilgamesh and Enkidu represented disparate natures united by the harmony of brotherly love, Gemini natives seek to bring together seemingly opposing forces, ideas, people, and experiences. This quest to make connections, most often seen as a quest for knowledge, can be social or spiritual and is characterized by an incurable interest in all things and, at least on the surface, breezy extroversion. Gemini investigates, circulates, and disseminates.

    As the domicile of Mercury, Gemini is famously mercurial—dexterous, tricksterish, insatiably curious, and not at all consistent. Driven to gather and distribute information, Gemini is both the student and the gossip. Their lot is to fully engage in mercurial activities, without question as to their worth—that’s the lot of Virgo, as both the domicile and exaltation of Mercury. The association between Mercury and the Greek Hermes, the Egyptian Thoth, and Mesopotamian Nabu give both signs the archetype of the scholar or scribe. The Twins are especially associated with language and writing, as well as speech and reporting, thanks to their investigative tendencies and stereotypically chatty nature.

    People resting, reading and chatting with each other. A landscape with mountains in the background and trees. Men are seated beside a well.
    The month May and the sign Gemini, represented by a hilly landscape in spring and Christ and the woman of Samaria.

    Jupiter, the planet of largess, is in its fall in the sign of the Twins. While a Gemini native might exhibit much of the outward exuberance of a Sagittarius native, the devil is in the details. Gemini is concerned with the minutiae, the gears that make things tick, whereas Sagittarius is concerned with the gist of things, the overarching meaning. While the typical Sagittarius does not sweat the small stuff, Geminis can have trouble seeing the forest through the trees. The contrast is also clear in the distance covered—natives born under the Twins dart back and forth, investigating whatever is closest at hand. The Archer, in contrast, shoots for the stars, oblivious to any obstacles to its arrows.

    While typically loquacious, especially in comparison to the taciturn Taurus, the sign of the Twins is not always extroverted. Indeed, much like their fellow air sign Libra, Gemini natives tend to gravitate to opposite extremes, and any period of exuberant extroversion is likely balanced by periods of reflective, even brooding solitude. But, possessing all of the flexibility afforded it as a mutable sign ruled by Mercury, the Gemini native is unlikely to stay gone for long. As part of their drive to network, or at least overhear, they want to be at the center of whatever is happening, flitting between the center and the margins without any restriction to their activities.

    Their distaste for restriction can translate into a fear of commitment, not unlike that of Sagittarius. But while the Archer wants no limits to the wide-open plains he might gallop, Gemini’s interest in freedom has to do with the free flow of information. Restrictions are, in a way, a form of censorship, and Gemini appreciates situations and relationships that allow them to gather information and experiences without limits or judgment.

    As a gatherer of information, Gemini is essentially amoral—it hears but it does not judge. Not unlike Scorpio, Gemini is rarely turned off by the darker sides of the human experience, and may not think twice about trying on an uglier mask for a bit, just to see what it feels like. Like anything else, it’s just another bit of data to gather and synthesize. But while Scorpio dives to the depths, Gemini dabbles, giving it a reputation for frivolity. A native born under the Twins may lack the intensity or emotional staying power expected by some, but it will never judge—it will simply listen, and perhaps wonder, why is it like that? and what if that were me?

    In any group, the Gemini is likely the one playfully sowing dissent, spreading rumors or trying on a new personality, but rarely is malice their motivation. In investigating the moment, they are driven to ask why, and often find out by trying out practically everything. This focus on the inner workings of the world around them means that Geminis love to take things—and people—apart to see how they work, a positively infuriating tendency for those being dissected.

    A main with two body and faces gifting each other.
    Gemini – The Twins, detail from the Horoscope from ‘The book of birth of Iskandar”

    An association with Janus, the indigenous Roman god of doorways and thresholds, can shed light on the archetype of the Twins. Janus faces two ways at once, looking forward and backward simultaneously. Gemini natives, similarly, can face—and accept—two polarities at once, a tendency that has given them a reputation for being two-faced or inconsistent. Logic and belief, intellect and emotion, idealism and materialism, masculine and feminine; the archetype of Gemini is to juggle these dualities and consolidate them through experience. But this openness to everything can mean an incapacity or unwillingness to exclude, a task Virgo is far more adept at. Geminis prefer to keep their options open and cherish the relationships that grant them that freedom, no strings attached.

    Even if a Gemini might try on a more extreme mask from time to time—and many typically love playing devil’s advocate—they are rarely extreme in their views and tend to be easy-going. They value intellectual freedom and will surely extend the same courtesy to you. Exhibiting both mental and physical agility, they may be entertaining conversationalists with a wide array of interests. The Twins have an essential association with games, especially card games—anything played with the hands.

    At work, they may be a jack-of-all-trades, but even in a clear-cut role they relish a variety of tasks and will often try to complete the same task in different ways, rather than sticking to the tried-and-true. This experimental approach to life characterizes how the Twins will act in social, romantic, professional situations, and more, to the chagrin of those who want them to take things more seriously.

    Two men hold the Gemini glyph as lights. A wave of yellow light from the earth, which seems like a volcano, separates the two men.
    Gemini by Mikalojus, 1907

    Despite their reputation for flightiness, the fact that some Geminis can fall in love with two people at the same time does not diminish the authenticity of that love. Funnily enough, Gemini on a cusp house could mean a duality in that part of the native’s life, with Gemini in the 10th house signifying two careers, or two marriages in the 7th.

    Like the immortal Pollux, Gemini natives typically maintain a youthful appearance or energy well into old age. Usually witty or clever, they may have a silver tongue or a gift for language. Their propensity for short-distance speed often means they are ahead of the game, without the singlemindedness of Aries. Thanks to their investigative skills, they’ve probably heard the news well before you tell them. A prominent Saturn or a wealth of fixed placements may make the typically vacillating Gemini native more consistent.

    The sign of the Twins is associated with the hands and limbs, and, understandably, professions such as writing, reporting, interpreting, diplomacy or linguistics, as well as teaching. The sign rules monkeys and many birds, especially those with a talent for mimicry. In dress, a Gemini native will favor lines over curves and prefers bright, stimulating, and cheery colors. Planets in Gemini are often a bit scattered, without the focus of the fixed signs but espousing a more investigative, verbalized approach to that part of the native’s life.

    As spring turns into summer, mutable Gemini reminds us that we can be two things at once. Espousing the reporter or the gossip, the Gemini native investigates the immediate world around it, happy to witness all sides of experience without judgement, as long as the story is entertaining. But at the root of the symbolism of the Twins is the quest for immortality, eternal youth—and how companionship can unite even the most disparate of natures.

    References

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  • In the Footsteps of Angels: Medieval Arabic Astrology

    In the Footsteps of Angels: Medieval Arabic Astrology

    It is He who made the stars, so that they can guide you when land and sea are dark: We have made the signs clear for those who have knowledge.

    The Holy Qu’ran. 6:97

    Unifying the diverse fields of mathematics, philosophy, optics, and astronomy, Hellenistic astrology needed an environment conducive to higher learning to survive through the trappings of state-funded libraries, observatories, and schools. Once Rome fell, so too fell the instruments supporting the sciences in Western Europe. The region would remain too embroiled in territorial squabbles—and too suspicious of pagan sources of knowledge—to preserve the sciences of antiquity. The wealth and infrastructure of the empire would persist in the east within the territory of the Byzantine empire for another millennium but it would be a new power outside of Christendom that would take up—and ultimately improve upon—the “wisdom of the ancients”.

    In the century following the flight of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca, Islam would go from local sect to world religion. Arab tribal rulers came to govern a territory surpassing in size that of Rome with a distinctly multicultural population, each community boasting histories stretching back thousands of years. Though the invading Arabs would be initially hostile to indigenous scholarship, destroying Persian astrological texts they considered incompatible with Islam, the Arab elite would eventually come to embrace the intellectual and cultural heritage of the lands and people they now ruled. 

    Zodiac imagery and lunar mansions wheel, rich imagery.
    Celestial map, signs of the Zodiac and lunar mansions in the Zubdat-al Tawarikh, dedicated to the Ottoman Sultan Murad III in 1583.

    The Islamic Golden Age, a period of stability and prosperity stretching from the 8th to the 12th century, saw Jewish, Christian, Hindu, Persian, Syrian, and pagan intellectuals working alongside Arab thinkers in the prosperous Abbasid capital of Baghdad, translating, preserving, and improving upon an immense variety of fields, all in the scientific lingua franca of Arabic. By allowing initiates to read the will of Allah from the composition of the heavens, astrology was second only to the reading of the Quran in the sciences of this golden era.

    The work of prominent Arabic thinkers shaped astrology as wealth, cultural exchange, and innovation would allow for technical, mathematical, and philosophical advances surpassing those achieved in the Greco-Roman world. It was to be this flowering of knowledge that would then pass astrology—and many other founts of ancient learning—on to the West, sparking the Renaissance and the beginnings of modernity.

    Astrology within Islam

    The tribespeople of the Arabian Peninsula, as nomadic traders, were familiar with astrology, and they both used a lunar calendar and navigated through the desert by the stars. Islam ostensibly forbade the worship of the sun and moon but one Quranic doctrine would allow philosophers to draw upon and adapt pre-Islamic sciences to fit into a distinctly Islamic worldview. This doctrine, known as tawhid, took the oneness of God to imply the oneness of wisdom, with all knowledge deriving from an original, uncorrupted source despite its seemingly fragmented nature. Tawhid allowed scholars writing in Arabic to draw upon the work of their Greek, Syrian, Persian, and Hindu predecessors, regardless of the religious content of those sources.

    Abu Ma’shar was particularly instrumental to the integration of astrology into the Islamic worldview by attributing the field to the antediluvian prophet Idris/Enoch, fused with the neo-Platonic figure of Hermes Trismegistus. The prophet was said to have ascended to the seventh heaven, the Saturnian sphere of the cosmos, where he learned the art of reading the stars and the planets. Then, instead of ascending to paradise, he descended to Earth to share his newfound knowledge with humanity—although popular Islamic folklore has it that he left his sandals in heaven to allow himself to return.

    Main image shows Sun with a man seated beside a beast. Beneath that there are 5 images showing man involved in 5 different occupations as per the 5 traditional planets.
    Page of a 15th-century manuscript of the “Book of nativities” by Abu Ma’shar

    Both India and Sassanian Persia would absorb Hellenistic astrology in the first few centuries A.D. and both cultures would play a role in shaping Arabic astrology. The first astrology text to be translated into Arabic was “Siddhanda”, a Sanskrit text, in 770 A.D., and many prominent astrologers writing in Arabic, most notably Abu Ma’shar, Omar of Tiberias, and al Biruni, drew heavily from their Persian roots. There were also Hindu astrologers working in Baghdad alongside Christians, Zoroastrians, Jews, and pagans but the primary source for Arab astrology remained Greek. The Arabs partly encountered it after conquering Alexandria and its eponymous library in 647, and their dealings with the Mandaeans in the city of Harran. 

    Located in what is now southeastern Turkey, Harran was a prominent center of pagan learning that survived well past the rise of monotheism in the region. Its inhabitants practiced a form of astral magic and held a distinctly neo-Platonic view of the universe. Respected as practitioners of what many Islamic thinkers considered an original belief handed down by God before the Flood, the Mandaeans would resist conversion until the 11th century. With the influence of Abu Ma’shar and other astrologers, their neo-Platonic worldview would come to underpin Arab astrology, with the planets treated as angels or otherwise signifiers of the one God that could be addressed or observed in His stead. Al Kindi, known as the “Father of Arabic Astrology”, would introduce the work of Aristotle, the second Hellenistic pillar supporting the Islamic sciences, and establish a vocabulary for philosophy in Arabic.

    Arabic Innovations

    While the philosophical basis for Arabic astrology relied on the works of Aristotle and a neo-Platonic worldview, its practice in the Islamic world depended on several innovations, both technological and theoretical. The astrolabe provided astronomers and navigators alike with an analog map of the heavens. For astrologers, it provided a quick way to calculate the ascendant, the first step in casting a horoscope.

    The zij, meanwhile, were Arabic ephemerides, tables containing astronomical data and formulas for calculating the rising times of various celestial bodies. Initially inspired by Ptolemy’s tables, Arabic astronomers and astrologers improved upon the model, often providing information related to trigonometry, chronology, and geography alongside strictly astrological data. The wealth of the Islamic world also supported both astrological schools and observatories, the former providing training for the best and brightest and the latter allowing Arabic astrologers to predict celestial movement with unprecedented accuracy.

    Jupiter rising with Mars turning cadent in the 7th house. Ruler of 7th is debilitated by being retrograde, in the 8th house and conjunct the South Node. Sun is in rulership in Leo in the house of its Joy in the 9th house.
    Foundation of Baghdad – a classic astrology election, 31 Jul 762 2:40 PM

    The city of Baghdad, the newly constructed Abbasid capital on the Tigris, would prove to be a particularly essential center of learning and was even founded according to a chart cast by Jewish Arab astrologer Mash’allah, among others. The placement of Jupiter rising in its domicile of Sagittarius ensured over four centuries of prosperity—although a malignant Mars in the 7th house of open enemies (in line with the Arabic tradition) would have other plans. But in its prime, the city was a beacon of learning, drawing intellectuals from across the Islamic world.

    The first Arabic astrology school was founded there in 777 A.D. by Jewish astrologer Jacob ben Tarik, and the Caliph Al-Mamun would construct the first observatory there in 829 A.D. Al-Mamun would also be responsible for founding the House of Wisdom, either a library or group of intellectuals that supported the translation of ancient texts from Persian, Sanskrit, Syriac, and Greek into Arabic that fostered the careers of both al Kindi and Abu Ma’shar. Contact with Greek sources would give Arabs access to the natural philosophy of Aristotle and Ptolemy, plus the mathematics of trigonometry, while connections to the Hindu east would give them the concept of zero, a decimal system, numerals, and algebra.

    By the early 9th century, when Omar of Tiberias wrote the texts that would eventually influence Latin astrologers, the astrology that he was using was by and large Hellenistic in content. The alterations from Hellenistic practice may have been due to the influence of Persian astrology, but many features would become fundamental for the development of horary and mundane astrology.

    The concept of orbs of light to measure aspects between two planets, rather than measuring aspects from sign, degree, or even bound, first appeared in Arabic astrology and would be carried into the medieval European tradition. Similarly, the first departure from the whole sign house system to quadrant houses is visible in Arabic language texts. Arabic astrologers also used a complex system of interferences with aspects, known as Alitifel, that few modern astrologers employ.

    Astrologer holding the celestial sphere and probing it.
    Title page for a 1504 German edition of De scientia motvs orbis, originally by Māshāʼallāh (740–815)

    Additionally, the work of Mash’allah and Abu Ma’shar would introduce a historical view of astrology based on conjunctions of Jupiter and Saturn, the slowest-moving visible planets. A prominent feature of Persian astrology, these conjunctions occur in some form every 20, 260, and 960 years and were seen as signifying momentous events in world history. Indeed, Abu Ma’shar would use these so-called “Great Conjunctions” to analyze the astrological conditions around both Jesus’ and Muhammad’s births and foretell the downfall of his own patron, the Abbasid Caliphate. Aries Ingress charts would become another important technique for mundane astrology, with Solar Return charts serving as their counterpart in natal astrology. 

    The system of lots, or parts, mathematically defined locations in a chart, would also become more prominent in Arabic astrology, especially in horary practices. While Ptolemy defined only the lot of Fortune, Arabic astrologers would use dozen of lots to predict everything from the debt of the native to the prospects of that year’s lentil harvest. Al Biruni, a philosopher and astrologer working in 11th century Afghanistan would provide a comprehensive list in his Elements of the Art of Astrology, complaining that “they increase in number every day”.

    The End of an Era

    The unified Arabic worldview—a fusion of neo-Platonic thought and Islamic doctrine—would intrigue the European Crusaders when they arrived in the Holy Land. However, the most important transit point of Islamic sciences, astrology included, would become the Jewish communities of Western Europe. From Moorish Spain to Renaissance Italy, most cities boasted a sizable Jewish community, some with considerably higher status than is typically assumed. 

    A scene of Ibn Ezra practicing Astrology with an Arabic manuscripts being held by the men that flank him to either side.
    An illustration of Ibn Ezra (center) making use of an astrolabe, ca 1235

    Perhaps the most famous Jewish astrologer, also a philosopher and poet, Ibn Ezra began the life of a roving scholar after increasing persecution pushed him out of his native Navarre. He wrote a dozen books on astrology, from mundane to medicinal, in Hebrew that contained techniques and philosophies prominent in Arabic sources.

    These works would see a Latin translation thanks to Pietro d’Abana, while other European Jewish intellectuals collaborated with priests to translate important Arabic works into Latin. This new flood of scientific knowledge from the East, some direct from Hellenistic sources and some from their improved Arabic equivalents, would ignite the intellectual fervor of the European Renaissance and bring about the birth of modernity.

    The works of Ptolemy, Omar of Tiberias, and Abu Ma’shar would inspire a whole new generation of astrologers and see the ancient science integrated into a distinctly Christian worldview. While some Latin astrologers would dismiss astrological techniques attributed to Arabic sources, William Lilly himself would cite the sayings of Abu Ma’shar, al Farghani, and al Kindi in Christian Astrology centuries later. Meanwhile, in the east, the Golden Era of Islam was drawing to a close and Mars was to have its revenge on the glimmering city of Baghdad. In 1248, Hulagu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, sacked the city, burning its libraries and making a pyramid from the skulls of its literati. The city would experience a similarly disastrous conquest by Timurlane in 1401 and never reclaim its former level of glory. The city that once preserved the “wisdom of the ancients” had seen its downfall foretold by the very art it helped survive the passage of the centuries.

    References

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  • Taurus: The Bull

    Taurus: The Bull

    Dull Honest Plowmen to manure the Field
    Strong Taurus bears, by him the Grounds are till’d:
    No gaudy things he breeds, no Prize for worth,
    But Blesseth Earth, and brings her Labour forth”

    –          Marcus Manilius, Astronomica tr. Thomas Creech

    Sign Summary

    • Element: Earth
    • Modality: Fixed
    • Ruler: Venus
    • Date: April 20 – May 20
    • Symbol: Bull

    Star Lore 

    In 1940, a group of French teens discovered a brightly colored procession of bison, deer, and bears adorning the walls of the Lascaux cave complex in southwestern France. Painted approximately 15,000 years ago, these images depict the natural world the prehistoric painters lived in. Some experts believe, however, that one bison depicted in the caves could be of celestial, rather than earthly, origin. 

    Whether or not these ancient painters had already associated the cluster of stars now known as Taurus with its current bovine symbol, the Bull was one of the earliest constellations recognized in the ancient Mediterranean, an enduring embodiment of spring and, eventually, humankind’s harnessing of nature’s inherent fertility. Once covering much of what is now recognized as Aries, Taurus marked the vernal equinox from 4000 to 2000 B.C. The ancient Hebrews made it the first constellation in their zodiac, associating it with the letter “Aleph”, whereas the Babylonians called it Gud. Anna., the “Bull of Heaven”. After Gilgamesh rejected Ishtar’s romantic advances—the titular hero claimed she tired too quickly of her lovers, in classic Venusian fashion—the goddess sent down the Bull to destroy him. The poor celestial bovine lost the fight, with Gilgamesh’s hairy friend, Enkidu, tearing off its hind legs and flinging them into the heavens, where they became Ursa Minor and Ursa Major. For its service the gods immortalized the now truncated Bull among the stars, facing the hunter now identified as Orion as if in combat. For his sacrilege, the gods took Enkidu’s life. 

    A bull walking across the stars inside a circle.
    Taurus – the Bull, detail from the Horoscope from ‘The book of birth of Iskandar”

    In ancient Egypt, the constellation of the Bull was a representative of the goddess Isis, and its covering by the sun each spring was seen as the symbolic sacrifice needed to ensure the fertility of the land. The Greeks typically associated the constellation with the romantic exploits of Zeus, giving it a somewhat bawdier connection to the idea of fertility. The Bull may have been the head Olympian disguised as a seemingly docile bull to court Europa, or Io, a lover of Zeus transformed into a heifer to hide her from Hera’s jealous gaze. Many of the Bull’s significations, plus the overall feminine energy of the constellation, stem from the presence of two key star clusters: the Pleiades and Hyades, both named for the mythological daughters of Atlas. The rising of the Hyades, identified as rain nymphs, was associated with rain from ancient Greece to ancient China. The Pleiades were said to coincide with good weather that marked the beginning of the sailing season in the ancient Aegean. Similarly, Aldebaran, the brightest star in the constellation, was one of the four Royal Stars of ancient Persia, known as the Watcher of the East.

    Characteristics

    As the nocturnal domicile of Venus, Taurus represents the more earthly, sensual side of the planet, in contrast with Libra’s more idealistic significations. Fertility, ease, and pleasure are all associated with the Bull. Taurean natives tend to be creative, although not necessarily innovative, thanks to the earthy drive to maintain the status quo. As astrologer Sue Tompkins points out, the glyph for Taurus resembles the Fallopian tubes leading to the uterus. This link to the fertility of a dignified Venus at the height of spring can manifest in several ways, but the focus is typically material rather than intellectual productivity. Many Tauruses have green thumbs, some are musically gifted, many are drawn to crafts and all have an appreciation for the fruits of the earth—especially the edible kind. Feasting has long been one of the foremost Venusian pursuits. 

    The Taurean drive to create is practical and focuses on tangible results. Bulls tend to be realists, blessed with a solid dose of common sense, and may have an innate distaste for abstract values or concepts. They want something real, something that can be seen, heard, felt, smelled, and tasted. They tend to be in touch with their bodies and the pleasures the physical and natural world afford. While this appreciation for simple pleasures can be indulgent, it is a recognition of nature’s bounty. A Taurus knows what’s good, and they tend to stick with it, rather than vacillating or flitting back and forth between choices as an air sign like Gemini might. Rather than lazy, a Bull is consistent—and less likely to choose the risk of an adventure than the known comforts of staying at home. The energy required to get a Bull moving is considerable, and like their fellow earth signs, Taurus prefers to conserve rather than needlessly spend energy or effort. Once a Bull has embarked on a path, it rarely will stray from it. 

    A bright day with the farmers sowing and plants growing.
    The month April and the sign of Taurus, represented by a village in spring, and by the parable of the sower.

    As a fixed earth sign, Taurus is seen as one of the most stable signs of the zodiac, with an energy prime for continuation—or inaction—depending on its initial momentum. This same stability is part of why Taurus is considered the exaltation of the Moon. In contrast to the changeability of Cancer, its domicile, the Moon has staying power in Taurus, creating a consistent, sane approach to emotions that satisfies nostalgic longings while calming more fickle lunar impulses. On an emotional level Tauruses may seem downright boring to some, obstinate or uncompromising to others, but reveal depth over time. As a spring sign, Taurus’ focus is on accumulation, rather than the conservation espoused by the winter sign of Capricorn; however, it is still distinctly wary of anything that might threaten its material or physical—and to a lesser extent, emotional—stability. 

    Given this sign’s marked distaste for change or upheaval, Mars experiences its fall in Taurus. As a fixed sign, much of Taurus’ strength comes from resisting movement, acting as an immovable object to the irresistible force of Mars. The inharmonious nature of the martial planet is distinctly at odds in the bull’s pleasant Venusian pastures, and the staying power this planet gains in this sign can become outright destructive. The Bull would prefer to be left alone, and their strength comes from stillness. Rather than directly confronting the other combatant, they prefer to simply wait them out.

    A truly upset Taurus, however, is a terrifying thing. Normally tranquil, the Bull, unlike Scorpio, is often unfamiliar with the uglier parts of the emotional spectrum and would prefer to avoid exploring them if possible. But, once the rampage has begun, the Bull has trouble stopping itself, giving it the potential to trample everything in its path. In contrast to the calculated precision of Mars in Scorpio or the limited staying power of Mars in Aries, Mars in Taurus does not know when to stop, making the capacity for collateral damage high. 

    Part of this discomfort with conflict comes from a reluctance to disturb the peace. Often the least emotionally communicative of the signs, the Bull may prefer to overlook problems rather than address them when they are still manageable—at least until that one last pinprick drives the Bull to charge. Taurus natives, however, are typically easy-going and unlikely to rock the boat. Their goal in any relationship is to build something stable and lasting, and they will shy away from more tempestuous or fickle individuals. As lovers, they are renowned for their stamina and capacity to provide comfort but may be somewhat conservative in their preferences. A Taurean loved one is often a sort of living bulwark, a source of support, or an obstacle to progress. Enduring and steadfast, the Taurus type is much like an oak tree—great at re-enforcing and providing stability, but not so great at bending. 

    Where Scorpios possess immense reserves of emotional strength, Taurus is characterized by an immense physical strength that can manifest in the capacity to bear burdens. Hardy as an ox, Taurean types can be immensely hard-working, assuming they manage to get started in the first place. Getting a Taurus going is a difficult task and getting them to do something they don’t want to is nigh impossible—remember that the harder you push a Bull, the harder they will push back. They will, however, follow willingly, given the right incentive. Taurean types take time to acclimate to new opinions and perspectives, so it is better to give them time to make up their minds than to force a result. The Bull hates to be rushed. Their purpose is to maintain, not initiate. But once they get going, the Bull can become an unstoppable juggernaut, an enduring force. 

    A bull relaxing on the top of the hill as the Sun rises. The Taurus glyph is in the top sky.
    Taurus by Mikalojus Konstantinas Ciurlionis, 1907

    Stereotypically materialistic, the Bull’s impulse is to accumulate things—and people—that bring pleasure and harmony to their lives. They can be possessive and are reluctant to give up anything or anyone with whom they have an emotional connection. In relationships, they are not necessarily more jealous than other signs, but generally have trouble handling the emotion, which disrupts their otherwise calm, composed demeanor. The Bull may hold onto a relationship, or at least the idea of it, long after a fickler sign like Aries will have up and left. They take root in situations they value and strive to build something concrete that they can appreciate in the long term. For the Bull, one bird in the hand is worth ten in the bush. 

    Taurus on a house cusp can represent an area of your life where the impulse is to build or acquire. This is likely a particularly stable part of your life, characterized by a realistic and consistent approach—even if that means consistently failing to learn from mistakes because of a desire to maintain stability. Taurus is associated with the throat and neck, emphasizing the sign’s famous appetite and a musical, especially vocal talent, given the right support from Venus. Barnyard animals, especially those that are traditionally raised for their meat, are associated with the sign. Thanks to an appreciation for harmony, though perhaps not with the stylish bend of a Libran type, many Tauruses are drawn to beauty and are often themselves easy on the eyes. In clothing, they favor pastel or earth tones and floral patterns. Their love of comfort means they generally opt for fabric that is pleasing to the touch. 

    If Aries represents the first shoots poking above the soil as the weather warms in spring, Taurus is the continuation of that growth, the power of roots growing downward to give the plant the energy it needs to bear fruit. The Bull is the sign of maintained energy, staid, supportive and enduring. Propelled to action by the carrot of material stability, the Bull plows the field of life, ensuring that the soil remains fertile enough to produce the fruits of nature that the Bull so enjoys. And once the work is done, the Bull lays down its burden to rest, at peace in the tranquil Venusian pastures of comfort. 

    References

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